INTRODUCTION
History of drug unavailability is as old as Ayurveda.When a large number of rare drugs have been referred, treatment should be done appropriately with the available drugs only. Availability of quality raw plant material is a burning issue.
Because of that, the first and foremost need of the hour is to have a uniform pattern for the selection of various herbal sources of drugs. In the light of current scarcity of several medicinal herbs, there is greater need to discover suitable substitutes for them.
Reasons for substitution of raw drugs are :
• Increasing demand
• Deforestation
• Extinction
• Incorrect identification
• Controversy
• Commercialization
• Breakdown in chain of knowledge transfer
The difference between adultration and substitution :
History of drug unavailability is as old as Ayurveda.When a large number of rare drugs have been referred, treatment should be done appropriately with the available drugs only. Availability of quality raw plant material is a burning issue.
Because of that, the first and foremost need of the hour is to have a uniform pattern for the selection of various herbal sources of drugs. In the light of current scarcity of several medicinal herbs, there is greater need to discover suitable substitutes for them.
Reasons for substitution of raw drugs are :
• Increasing demand
• Deforestation
• Extinction
• Incorrect identification
• Controversy
• Commercialization
• Breakdown in chain of knowledge transfer
The difference between adultration and substitution :
ADULTERANTION –
• It is a practice of substituting original crude drug partially or wholly with other similar looking substances but later is either free from or inferior in chemical and therapeutic properties.
Substitution –
• It occurs when some totally different substance is added in the place of original drug.
Common terms used along with the term Adulteration in Pharmacognosy
• Adulteration involves different conditions such as deterioration, admixture, sophistication, inferiority and spoilage.
• Deterioration is impairment in the quality of the drug.
• Admixture is addition of one article to another due to ignorance or carelessness or by accident.
• Sophistication is the intentional or deliberate type of adulteration.
• Inferiority refers to any substandard drug,
• Spoilage is due to the attack of micro-organisms.
• It is a practice of substituting original crude drug partially or wholly with other similar looking substances but later is either free from or inferior in chemical and therapeutic properties.
Substitution –
• It occurs when some totally different substance is added in the place of original drug.
Common terms used along with the term Adulteration in Pharmacognosy
• Adulteration involves different conditions such as deterioration, admixture, sophistication, inferiority and spoilage.
• Deterioration is impairment in the quality of the drug.
• Admixture is addition of one article to another due to ignorance or carelessness or by accident.
• Sophistication is the intentional or deliberate type of adulteration.
• Inferiority refers to any substandard drug,
• Spoilage is due to the attack of micro-organisms.
According to modern literature and legal aspect, all substitutes are considered as adulterants.
TYPES OF ADULTERANTS
1. Substitution with standard commercial varieties
2. Substitution with superficially similar inferior drugs
3. Substitution with artificially manufactured substances
4. Substitution with exhausted drugs
5. Substitution with synthetic chemicals
6. Presence of vegetative matter from the same plant
7. Harmful adulterants
8. Adulteration of powders
1. Substitution with standard commercial varieties
2. Substitution with superficially similar inferior drugs
3. Substitution with artificially manufactured substances
4. Substitution with exhausted drugs
5. Substitution with synthetic chemicals
6. Presence of vegetative matter from the same plant
7. Harmful adulterants
8. Adulteration of powders
1. Substitution with substandard commercial varieties
• Resemblance in morphological, chemical or therapeutic characters
• Substandard in nature
• Cheaper in cost
• Most common practice of adulteration e.g. Indian senna - Arabian senna and dog senna; Medicinal ginger - its inferior varieties, viz. African, Japanese and Cochin ginger.
• Resemblance in morphological, chemical or therapeutic characters
• Substandard in nature
• Cheaper in cost
• Most common practice of adulteration e.g. Indian senna - Arabian senna and dog senna; Medicinal ginger - its inferior varieties, viz. African, Japanese and Cochin ginger.
2. Substitution with superficially similar inferior drugs
• May or may not be having any chemical or therapeutic value
• Marketed as adulterants due to morphological resemblance e.g. Saffron – Dried flowers of Carthamus tinctorius, Clove – Mother cloves and clove stalks
• May or may not be having any chemical or therapeutic value
• Marketed as adulterants due to morphological resemblance e.g. Saffron – Dried flowers of Carthamus tinctorius, Clove – Mother cloves and clove stalks
3. Substitution with artificially manufactured substances
• For costlier drugs e.g. Compressed chicory in place of coffee ,Shaped basewood for nutmeg.
• For costlier drugs e.g. Compressed chicory in place of coffee ,Shaped basewood for nutmeg.
4. Substitution with exhausted drugs
• Same drug but devoid of medicinally active constituents due to previous extraction
• Common practice in case of volatile oil containing drugs like fennel, clove, coriander, caraway etc.
• Manipulation in colour and taste of exhausted drugs by adding other additive e.g. exhausted gentian made bitter with aloes; artificial colouring of exhausted saffron
• Same drug but devoid of medicinally active constituents due to previous extraction
• Common practice in case of volatile oil containing drugs like fennel, clove, coriander, caraway etc.
• Manipulation in colour and taste of exhausted drugs by adding other additive e.g. exhausted gentian made bitter with aloes; artificial colouring of exhausted saffron
5. Substitution with synthetic chemicals
• To enhance the natural character e.g. Addition of benzyl benzoate to balsam of Peru; Citral to citrus oils like oil of lemon and orange oil etc.
• To enhance the natural character e.g. Addition of benzyl benzoate to balsam of Peru; Citral to citrus oils like oil of lemon and orange oil etc.
6. Presence of vegetative matter from the same plant
• Due to resemblance in colour, odour in some cases constituents e.g. Mixing of Senna leaves and stem
• Due to resemblance in colour, odour in some cases constituents e.g. Mixing of Senna leaves and stem
7. Harmful adulterants
• Collection and admixture of wastes from market
• Noticed for liquid or unorganised drugs e.g. limestones in asafetida; Rodent faecal matter to cardamom seed
• Collection and admixture of wastes from market
• Noticed for liquid or unorganised drugs e.g. limestones in asafetida; Rodent faecal matter to cardamom seed
8. Adulteration of powders
• Frequent form of adulteration e.g. powdered liquorice or gentian admixed with powdered olive stones; Red sanders wood in capsicum
• Frequent form of adulteration e.g. powdered liquorice or gentian admixed with powdered olive stones; Red sanders wood in capsicum
HISTORICAL REVIEW
VEDIC KALA –
• Kusha, Ashmantak, Bala vacha were used for Munja
• Kasha were used for Kusha
VEDIC KALA –
• Kusha, Ashmantak, Bala vacha were used for Munja
• Kasha were used for Kusha
SAMHITA KALA –
• The prior Acharyas like Charaka and Susruta have not given direct reference or listing of substitute s (Pratinidhi dravyas) but, Acharya Vagbhata has stated a shlok for pratinidhi dravya
• The prior Acharyas like Charaka and Susruta have not given direct reference or listing of substitute s (Pratinidhi dravyas) but, Acharya Vagbhata has stated a shlok for pratinidhi dravya
• The term Pratinidhi dravya was first introduced by Vangasen.
• Detail description regarding Pratinidhi dravyas can be traced from Bhavaprakasha, Yogaratnakara and Bhaishajya-ratnavali.
• Detail description regarding Pratinidhi dravyas can be traced from Bhavaprakasha, Yogaratnakara and Bhaishajya-ratnavali.
NEED / CAUSES OF SUBSTITUTION
• Non-availability of the drug
▪ Ashtavarga Dravyas.
▪ Talisa patra i. e. Abies webiana Lindl. -Pinaceae , Taxus baccata Linn-Taxaceae
• Uncertain identity of the drug
▪ Eg: - for the herb Lakshmana different species such as Arlia quinquefolia, Ipomea sepiaria etc are considered
▪ For Soma different species such as Ephedra gerardiana, Ceropegia juncea Roxb, Sarcostemma brevistigma etc are considered.
• Cost of the drug-costly herb is substituted by cheaper herb
▪ Eg. Kumkuma (Rs.1,50,000/kg) - Kusumbha (Rs.150/kg)
▪ Ativisha (Rs.8000/kg) – Musta (Rs.80/kg)
• Geographical distribution of the drug
▪ Eg. Rasna - Pluchea lanceolata is used in Northern India while in Southern parts Alpinia galanga is considered as the source.
▪ List of region wise different botanical sources of plants
1. Plant herb : Agaru
Accepted source : Aquilaria agallocha (Hymelaeaceae)
Other source : South India:
Dysoxylum malabaricum (Meliaceae)
2. Plant herb : Bharangi
Accepted source : clerodendrum serratum
(Verbenaceae)
Other source : South India:
Premna herbacea (Verbenaceae)
• Bengal:
Picrasma quassioides (Simarubaceae)
3. Plant drug : Daruharidra
Accepted source : Berberis aristata
(Berberidaceae)
Other source : South India:
Coscinium fenestratum (Menispermaceae)
4. Plant drug : Duralabha/ Dhanvayasa
Accepted source : Fagonia cretica
(Zygophyllaceaea)
Other source : South India:
Tragia involucrate (Euphorbiaceae)
5. Plant drug : Hapusha/
Accepted source : Havusha
Juniperus communis
(Pinaceae)
Other source : South India:
Sphaeranthus indicus (Asteraceae)
6. Plant drug : jivanti
Accepted source : Leptadenia reticulata
(Asclepiadaceae)
Other source : South India:
Holostemma rheedei (Asclepiadaceae)
7. Plant drug : kiratatikta
Accepted source : swertia chirata
(Gentianaceae)
Other source: South India:
Andrographis paniculata (Acanthaceae)
8. Plant drug : Murva
Accepted source : Marsdenia tenacissima
(Asclepiadaceae)
Other source : South India:
Chonemorpha macrophylla (Apocynaceae)
Sansevieria roxburghiana (Liliaceae) (IMPCOPS, Chennai)
9. Plant drug : Nagakeshara
Accepted source : Mesua ferrea (Clusiaceae)
Other source : south India:
Calophyllum inophyllum (Clusiaceae)
• Tamilnadu:
Cinnamomum wightii (Lauraceae) and Dillenia pentagyna (Dilleniaceae) fruits
10. Plant drug :Prasarini
Accepted source : Paederia foetida
(Rubiaceae)
Other source : South India:
Merremia tridentate (Convolvulaceae)
11. Plant drug : Priyangu
Accepted source : callicarpa macrophylla
(Verbenaceae)
• Substitute: Prunus mahaleb (Rosaceae)
• South India:
Callicarpa tomentosa (Verbenaceae); Zanthoxylum rhetsa (Rutaceae);
Aglaia roxburghiana fruits (Meliaceae);
Myristica malabarica (Myristicaceae)
dried flowers (IMPCOPS, Chennai)
12. Palnt drug : Prishniparni
Accepted source : Uraria picta (Fabaceae)
Other source : South India:
Pseudarthria viscida (Fabaceae)
• Kerala:
Desmodium gangeticum (Papilionaceae)
13. Plant drug : Rasna
Accepted source : Pluchea lanceolata
(Asteraceae)
• Substitute:
Alpinia galanga (Zingiberaceae)
• South India:
Alpinia calcarata and Alpinia galanga (Zingiberaceae)
• AndhraPradesh:
Dodonaea viscosa (Sapindaceae)
• Eastern India:
Vanda roxburghii (Orchidaceae)
• Bihar:
Lepidagathis trinervis (Acanthaceae)
• Madhyapradesh:
Blepharispermum subsessile (Compositae)
14. Plant drug : Renuka
Accepted source : Vitex agnus-castus
(Verbenaceae)
• Non-availability of the drug
▪ Ashtavarga Dravyas.
▪ Talisa patra i. e. Abies webiana Lindl. -Pinaceae , Taxus baccata Linn-Taxaceae
• Uncertain identity of the drug
▪ Eg: - for the herb Lakshmana different species such as Arlia quinquefolia, Ipomea sepiaria etc are considered
▪ For Soma different species such as Ephedra gerardiana, Ceropegia juncea Roxb, Sarcostemma brevistigma etc are considered.
• Cost of the drug-costly herb is substituted by cheaper herb
▪ Eg. Kumkuma (Rs.1,50,000/kg) - Kusumbha (Rs.150/kg)
▪ Ativisha (Rs.8000/kg) – Musta (Rs.80/kg)
• Geographical distribution of the drug
▪ Eg. Rasna - Pluchea lanceolata is used in Northern India while in Southern parts Alpinia galanga is considered as the source.
▪ List of region wise different botanical sources of plants
1. Plant herb : Agaru
Accepted source : Aquilaria agallocha (Hymelaeaceae)
Other source : South India:
Dysoxylum malabaricum (Meliaceae)
2. Plant herb : Bharangi
Accepted source : clerodendrum serratum
(Verbenaceae)
Other source : South India:
Premna herbacea (Verbenaceae)
• Bengal:
Picrasma quassioides (Simarubaceae)
3. Plant drug : Daruharidra
Accepted source : Berberis aristata
(Berberidaceae)
Other source : South India:
Coscinium fenestratum (Menispermaceae)
4. Plant drug : Duralabha/ Dhanvayasa
Accepted source : Fagonia cretica
(Zygophyllaceaea)
Other source : South India:
Tragia involucrate (Euphorbiaceae)
5. Plant drug : Hapusha/
Accepted source : Havusha
Juniperus communis
(Pinaceae)
Other source : South India:
Sphaeranthus indicus (Asteraceae)
6. Plant drug : jivanti
Accepted source : Leptadenia reticulata
(Asclepiadaceae)
Other source : South India:
Holostemma rheedei (Asclepiadaceae)
7. Plant drug : kiratatikta
Accepted source : swertia chirata
(Gentianaceae)
Other source: South India:
Andrographis paniculata (Acanthaceae)
8. Plant drug : Murva
Accepted source : Marsdenia tenacissima
(Asclepiadaceae)
Other source : South India:
Chonemorpha macrophylla (Apocynaceae)
Sansevieria roxburghiana (Liliaceae) (IMPCOPS, Chennai)
9. Plant drug : Nagakeshara
Accepted source : Mesua ferrea (Clusiaceae)
Other source : south India:
Calophyllum inophyllum (Clusiaceae)
• Tamilnadu:
Cinnamomum wightii (Lauraceae) and Dillenia pentagyna (Dilleniaceae) fruits
10. Plant drug :Prasarini
Accepted source : Paederia foetida
(Rubiaceae)
Other source : South India:
Merremia tridentate (Convolvulaceae)
11. Plant drug : Priyangu
Accepted source : callicarpa macrophylla
(Verbenaceae)
• Substitute: Prunus mahaleb (Rosaceae)
• South India:
Callicarpa tomentosa (Verbenaceae); Zanthoxylum rhetsa (Rutaceae);
Aglaia roxburghiana fruits (Meliaceae);
Myristica malabarica (Myristicaceae)
dried flowers (IMPCOPS, Chennai)
12. Palnt drug : Prishniparni
Accepted source : Uraria picta (Fabaceae)
Other source : South India:
Pseudarthria viscida (Fabaceae)
• Kerala:
Desmodium gangeticum (Papilionaceae)
13. Plant drug : Rasna
Accepted source : Pluchea lanceolata
(Asteraceae)
• Substitute:
Alpinia galanga (Zingiberaceae)
• South India:
Alpinia calcarata and Alpinia galanga (Zingiberaceae)
• AndhraPradesh:
Dodonaea viscosa (Sapindaceae)
• Eastern India:
Vanda roxburghii (Orchidaceae)
• Bihar:
Lepidagathis trinervis (Acanthaceae)
• Madhyapradesh:
Blepharispermum subsessile (Compositae)
14. Plant drug : Renuka
Accepted source : Vitex agnus-castus
(Verbenaceae)
Other source : South India:
Vitex altissima, Vitex negundo (Verbenaceae)
• In South India:
fruits of Vitex sp. are sold as a Renuka. Fruits of Piper aurantiacum (Piperaceae) are used as Harenuka/Renuka.
(IMPCOPS, Chennai.)
15. Plant drug : Sahachara
Accepted source : Barleria prionitis
(Acanthaceae)
Other source : South India:
Niligirianthus ciliates (Acanthaceae)
• Kerala:
Ecbolium viride (Nila Sahachara), Justica betonica (Shweta Sahachara) (Acanthaceae)
16. Plant drug :Sariva
Accepted source : Hemidesmus indicus
(Asclepiadaceae)
Other source : South India: As shweta Sariva
Decalepis hamiltonii (Asclepiadaceae); Cryptolepis buchanani (Asclepiadaceae);
Ichnocarpus frutescens used as Krishna Sariva (Apocynaceae)
• Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka:
Decalepis hamiltonii (Asclepiadaceae)
17. Plant drug : Shati
Accepted source :Hedychium spicatum
(Zingiberaceae)
Other source: South India:
Kaempeferia galanga,
Curcuma zedoaria (Zingiberaceae)
18. Plant drug : Shankha pushpi
Accepted source : Convolvulus pluricaulis
(Convolvulaceae)
Other source : South India:
Evolvulus alsinoides (Convolvulaceae), Clitoria ternatea (Fabaceae)
• Bengal:
Canscora decussate (Gentianaceae), Lavandula bipinnata (Labiateae; Lamiaceae)
19. Plant drug : shringi, Karkata-shringi
Accepted source : Pistacia integerrima (galls)
(Anacardiaceae)
Other source : South India:
Rhus semialata galls, Rhus succedanea galls (Anacardiaceae)
20. Plant drug :Vidari
Accepted source : Pueraria tuberosa
(Fabaceae)
Vitex altissima, Vitex negundo (Verbenaceae)
• In South India:
fruits of Vitex sp. are sold as a Renuka. Fruits of Piper aurantiacum (Piperaceae) are used as Harenuka/Renuka.
(IMPCOPS, Chennai.)
15. Plant drug : Sahachara
Accepted source : Barleria prionitis
(Acanthaceae)
Other source : South India:
Niligirianthus ciliates (Acanthaceae)
• Kerala:
Ecbolium viride (Nila Sahachara), Justica betonica (Shweta Sahachara) (Acanthaceae)
16. Plant drug :Sariva
Accepted source : Hemidesmus indicus
(Asclepiadaceae)
Other source : South India: As shweta Sariva
Decalepis hamiltonii (Asclepiadaceae); Cryptolepis buchanani (Asclepiadaceae);
Ichnocarpus frutescens used as Krishna Sariva (Apocynaceae)
• Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka:
Decalepis hamiltonii (Asclepiadaceae)
17. Plant drug : Shati
Accepted source :Hedychium spicatum
(Zingiberaceae)
Other source: South India:
Kaempeferia galanga,
Curcuma zedoaria (Zingiberaceae)
18. Plant drug : Shankha pushpi
Accepted source : Convolvulus pluricaulis
(Convolvulaceae)
Other source : South India:
Evolvulus alsinoides (Convolvulaceae), Clitoria ternatea (Fabaceae)
• Bengal:
Canscora decussate (Gentianaceae), Lavandula bipinnata (Labiateae; Lamiaceae)
19. Plant drug : shringi, Karkata-shringi
Accepted source : Pistacia integerrima (galls)
(Anacardiaceae)
Other source : South India:
Rhus semialata galls, Rhus succedanea galls (Anacardiaceae)
20. Plant drug :Vidari
Accepted source : Pueraria tuberosa
(Fabaceae)
Other source : South India:
Adenia hondala (Passifloraceae); Ipomoea paniculata (Convolvulaceae); Cycas circinalis (Cycadaceae)
Adenia hondala (Passifloraceae); Ipomoea paniculata (Convolvulaceae); Cycas circinalis (Cycadaceae)
• Intolerance of the drug
▪ Bhallatak-Rakta chandan
• Regional synonyms
▪ Ubhosameravo (Alysicarpus longifolius) is used in place of Prishniparni (Uraria picta) by some traditional healers of Saurashtra region (Gujarat) due to similarity in the vernacular names of both the species.
• Seasonal availability
▪ Varshabhu is only found in rainy season
• Shelf life of the drug
▪ Dravyas having lesser shelf life should be substituted by those having comparatively more shelf life. e.g. Musta can be used in place of Ativisha which is having lesser shelf life.
• Chemical composition
▪ Same chemical constituent Berberine is found in both Haridra and Daruharidra.
▪ Bhallatak-Rakta chandan
• Regional synonyms
▪ Ubhosameravo (Alysicarpus longifolius) is used in place of Prishniparni (Uraria picta) by some traditional healers of Saurashtra region (Gujarat) due to similarity in the vernacular names of both the species.
• Seasonal availability
▪ Varshabhu is only found in rainy season
• Shelf life of the drug
▪ Dravyas having lesser shelf life should be substituted by those having comparatively more shelf life. e.g. Musta can be used in place of Ativisha which is having lesser shelf life.
• Chemical composition
▪ Same chemical constituent Berberine is found in both Haridra and Daruharidra.
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